Traits: Defining Shared Behavior
A trait defines the functionality a particular type has and can share with other types. We can use traits to define shared behavior in an abstract way. We can use trait bounds to specify that a generic type can be any type that has certain behavior.
Note: Traits are similar to a feature often called interfaces in other languages, although with some differences.
Defining a Trait
A type’s behavior consists of the methods we can call on that type. Different types share the same behavior if we can call the same methods on all of those types. Trait definitions are a way to group method signatures together to define a set of behaviors necessary to accomplish some purpose.
For example, let’s say we have multiple structs that hold various kinds and
amounts of text: a NewsArticle struct that holds a news story filed in a
particular location and a Tweet that can have, at most, 280 characters along
with metadata that indicates whether it was a new tweet, a retweet, or a reply
to another tweet.
We want to make a media aggregator library crate named aggregator that can
display summaries of data that might be stored in a NewsArticle or Tweet
instance. To do this, we need a summary from each type, and we’ll request that
summary by calling a summarize method on an instance. Listing 10-12 shows the
definition of a public Summary trait that expresses this behavior.
Filename: src/lib.rs
pub trait Summary {
fn summarize(&self) -> String;
}Listing 10-12: A Summary trait that consists of the
behavior provided by a summarize method
Here, we declare a trait using the trait keyword and then the trait’s name,
which is Summary in this case. We also declare the trait as pub so that
crates depending on this crate can make use of this trait too, as we’ll see in
a few examples. Inside the curly brackets, we declare the method signatures
that describe the behaviors of the types that implement this trait, which in
this case is fn summarize(&self) -> String.
After the method signature, instead of providing an implementation within curly
brackets, we use a semicolon. Each type implementing this trait must provide
its own custom behavior for the body of the method. The compiler will enforce
that any type that has the Summary trait will have the method summarize
defined with this signature exactly.
A trait can have multiple methods in its body: the method signatures are listed one per line, and each line ends in a semicolon.
Implementing a Trait on a Type
Now that we’ve defined the desired signatures of the Summary trait’s methods,
we can implement it on the types in our media aggregator. Listing 10-13 shows
an implementation of the Summary trait on the NewsArticle struct that uses
the headline, the author, and the location to create the return value of
summarize. For the Tweet struct, we define summarize as the username
followed by the entire text of the tweet, assuming that the tweet content is
already limited to 280 characters.
Filename: src/lib.rs
pub trait Summary {
fn summarize(&self) -> String;
}
pub struct NewsArticle {
pub headline: String,
pub location: String,
pub author: String,
pub content: String,
}
impl Summary for NewsArticle {
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
}
}
pub struct Tweet {
pub username: String,
pub content: String,
pub reply: bool,
pub retweet: bool,
}
impl Summary for Tweet {
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
}
}Listing 10-13: Implementing the Summary trait on the
NewsArticle and Tweet types
Implementing a trait on a type is similar to implementing regular methods. The
difference is that after impl, we put the trait name we want to implement,
then use the for keyword, and then specify the name of the type we want to
implement the trait for. Within the impl block, we put the method signatures
that the trait definition has defined. Instead of adding a semicolon after each
signature, we use curly brackets and fill in the method body with the specific
behavior that we want the methods of the trait to have for the particular type.
Now that the library has implemented the Summary trait on NewsArticle and
Tweet, users of the crate can call the trait methods on instances of
NewsArticle and Tweet in the same way we call regular methods. The only
difference is that the user must bring the trait into scope as well as the
types. Here’s an example of how a binary crate could use our aggregator
library crate:
use aggregator::{Summary, Tweet};
fn main() {
let tweet = Tweet {
username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
content: String::from(
"of course, as you probably already know, people",
),
reply: false,
retweet: false,
};
println!("1 new tweet: {}", tweet.summarize());
}This code prints 1 new tweet: horse_ebooks: of course, as you probably already know, people.
Other crates that depend on the aggregator crate can also bring the Summary
trait into scope to implement Summary on their own types. One restriction to
note is that we can implement a trait on a type only if either the trait or the
type, or both, are local to our crate. For example, we can implement standard
library traits like Display on a custom type like Tweet as part of our
aggregator crate functionality because the type Tweet is local to our
aggregator crate. We can also implement Summary on Vec<T> in our
aggregator crate because the trait Summary is local to our aggregator
crate.
But we can’t implement external traits on external types. For example, we can’t
implement the Display trait on Vec<T> within our aggregator crate because
Display and Vec<T> are both defined in the standard library and aren’t
local to our aggregator crate. This restriction is part of a property called
coherence, and more specifically the orphan rule, so named because the
parent type is not present. This rule ensures that other people’s code can’t
break your code and vice versa. Without the rule, two crates could implement
the same trait for the same type, and Rust wouldn’t know which implementation
to use.
Default Implementations
Sometimes it’s useful to have default behavior for some or all of the methods in a trait instead of requiring implementations for all methods on every type. Then, as we implement the trait on a particular type, we can keep or override each method’s default behavior.
In Listing 10-14, we specify a default string for the summarize method of the
Summary trait instead of only defining the method signature, as we did in
Listing 10-12.
Filename: src/lib.rs
pub trait Summary {
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
String::from("(Read more...)")
}
}
pub struct NewsArticle {
pub headline: String,
pub location: String,
pub author: String,
pub content: String,
}
impl Summary for NewsArticle {}
pub struct Tweet {
pub username: String,
pub content: String,
pub reply: bool,
pub retweet: bool,
}
impl Summary for Tweet {
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
}
}Listing 10-14: Defining a Summary trait with a default
implementation of the summarize method
To use a default implementation to summarize instances of NewsArticle, we
specify an empty impl block with impl Summary for NewsArticle {}.
Even though we’re no longer defining the summarize method on NewsArticle
directly, we’ve provided a default implementation and specified that
NewsArticle implements the Summary trait. As a result, we can still call
the summarize method on an instance of NewsArticle, like this:
use aggregator::{self, NewsArticle, Summary};
fn main() {
let article = NewsArticle {
headline: String::from("Penguins win the Stanley Cup Championship!"),
location: String::from("Pittsburgh, PA, USA"),
author: String::from("Iceburgh"),
content: String::from(
"The Pittsburgh Penguins once again are the best \
hockey team in the NHL.",
),
};
println!("New article available! {}", article.summarize());
}This code prints New article available! (Read more...).
Creating a default implementation doesn’t require us to change anything about
the implementation of Summary on Tweet in Listing 10-13. The reason is that
the syntax for overriding a default implementation is the same as the syntax
for implementing a trait method that doesn’t have a default implementation.
Default implementations can call other methods in the same trait, even if those
other methods don’t have a default implementation. In this way, a trait can
provide a lot of useful functionality and only require implementors to specify
a small part of it. For example, we could define the Summary trait to have a
summarize_author method whose implementation is required, and then define a
summarize method that has a default implementation that calls the
summarize_author method:
pub trait Summary {
fn summarize_author(&self) -> String;
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
format!("(Read more from {}...)", self.summarize_author())
}
}
pub struct Tweet {
pub username: String,
pub content: String,
pub reply: bool,
pub retweet: bool,
}
impl Summary for Tweet {
fn summarize_author(&self) -> String {
format!("@{}", self.username)
}
}To use this version of Summary, we only need to define summarize_author
when we implement the trait on a type:
pub trait Summary {
fn summarize_author(&self) -> String;
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
format!("(Read more from {}...)", self.summarize_author())
}
}
pub struct Tweet {
pub username: String,
pub content: String,
pub reply: bool,
pub retweet: bool,
}
impl Summary for Tweet {
fn summarize_author(&self) -> String {
format!("@{}", self.username)
}
}After we define summarize_author, we can call summarize on instances of the
Tweet struct, and the default implementation of summarize will call the
definition of summarize_author that we’ve provided. Because we’ve implemented
summarize_author, the Summary trait has given us the behavior of the
summarize method without requiring us to write any more code. Here’s what
that looks like:
use aggregator::{self, Summary, Tweet};
fn main() {
let tweet = Tweet {
username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
content: String::from(
"of course, as you probably already know, people",
),
reply: false,
retweet: false,
};
println!("1 new tweet: {}", tweet.summarize());
}This code prints 1 new tweet: (Read more from @horse_ebooks...).
Note that it isn’t possible to call the default implementation from an overriding implementation of that same method.
Traits as Parameters
Now that you know how to define and implement traits, we can explore how to use
traits to define functions that accept many different types. We’ll use the
Summary trait we implemented on the NewsArticle and Tweet types in
Listing 10-13 to define a notify function that calls the summarize method
on its item parameter, which is of some type that implements the Summary
trait. To do this, we use the impl Trait syntax, like this:
pub trait Summary {
fn summarize(&self) -> String;
}
pub struct NewsArticle {
pub headline: String,
pub location: String,
pub author: String,
pub content: String,
}
impl Summary for NewsArticle {
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
}
}
pub struct Tweet {
pub username: String,
pub content: String,
pub reply: bool,
pub retweet: bool,
}
impl Summary for Tweet {
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
}
}
pub fn notify(item: &impl Summary) {
println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize());
}Instead of a concrete type for the item parameter, we specify the impl
keyword and the trait name. This parameter accepts any type that implements the
specified trait. In the body of notify, we can call any methods on item
that come from the Summary trait, such as summarize. We can call notify
and pass in any instance of NewsArticle or Tweet. Code that calls the
function with any other type, such as a String or an i32, won’t compile
because those types don’t implement Summary.
Trait Bound Syntax
The impl Trait syntax works for straightforward cases but is actually syntax
sugar for a longer form known as a trait bound; it looks like this:
pub fn notify<T: Summary>(item: &T) {
println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize());
}This longer form is equivalent to the example in the previous section but is more verbose. We place trait bounds with the declaration of the generic type parameter after a colon and inside angle brackets.
The impl Trait syntax is convenient and makes for more concise code in simple
cases, while the fuller trait bound syntax can express more complexity in other
cases. For example, we can have two parameters that implement Summary. Doing
so with the impl Trait syntax looks like this:
pub fn notify(item1: &impl Summary, item2: &impl Summary) {Using impl Trait is appropriate if we want this function to allow item1 and
item2 to have different types (as long as both types implement Summary). If
we want to force both parameters to have the same type, however, we must use a
trait bound, like this:
pub fn notify<T: Summary>(item1: &T, item2: &T) {The generic type T specified as the type of the item1 and item2
parameters constrains the function such that the concrete type of the value
passed as an argument for item1 and item2 must be the same.
Specifying Multiple Trait Bounds with the + Syntax
We can also specify more than one trait bound. Say we wanted notify to use
display formatting as well as summarize on item: we specify in the notify
definition that item must implement both Display and Summary. We can do
so using the + syntax:
pub fn notify(item: &(impl Summary + Display)) {The + syntax is also valid with trait bounds on generic types:
pub fn notify<T: Summary + Display>(item: &T) {With the two trait bounds specified, the body of notify can call summarize
and use {} to format item.
Clearer Trait Bounds with where Clauses
Using too many trait bounds has its downsides. Each generic has its own trait
bounds, so functions with multiple generic type parameters can contain lots of
trait bound information between the function’s name and its parameter list,
making the function signature hard to read. For this reason, Rust has alternate
syntax for specifying trait bounds inside a where clause after the function
signature. So, instead of writing this:
fn some_function<T: Display + Clone, U: Clone + Debug>(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32 {we can use a where clause, like this:
fn some_function<T, U>(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32
where
T: Display + Clone,
U: Clone + Debug,
{
unimplemented!()
}This function’s signature is less cluttered: the function name, parameter list, and return type are close together, similar to a function without lots of trait bounds.
Returning Types That Implement Traits
We can also use the impl Trait syntax in the return position to return a
value of some type that implements a trait, as shown here:
pub trait Summary {
fn summarize(&self) -> String;
}
pub struct NewsArticle {
pub headline: String,
pub location: String,
pub author: String,
pub content: String,
}
impl Summary for NewsArticle {
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
}
}
pub struct Tweet {
pub username: String,
pub content: String,
pub reply: bool,
pub retweet: bool,
}
impl Summary for Tweet {
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
}
}
fn returns_summarizable() -> impl Summary {
Tweet {
username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
content: String::from(
"of course, as you probably already know, people",
),
reply: false,
retweet: false,
}
}By using impl Summary for the return type, we specify that the
returns_summarizable function returns some type that implements the Summary
trait without naming the concrete type. In this case, returns_summarizable
returns a Tweet, but the code calling this function doesn’t need to know that.
The ability to specify a return type only by the trait it implements is
especially useful in the context of closures and iterators, which we cover in
Chapter 13. Closures and iterators create types that only the compiler knows or
types that are very long to specify. The impl Trait syntax lets you concisely
specify that a function returns some type that implements the Iterator trait
without needing to write out a very long type.
However, you can only use impl Trait if you’re returning a single type. For
example, this code that returns either a NewsArticle or a Tweet with the
return type specified as impl Summary wouldn’t work:
pub trait Summary {
fn summarize(&self) -> String;
}
pub struct NewsArticle {
pub headline: String,
pub location: String,
pub author: String,
pub content: String,
}
impl Summary for NewsArticle {
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
}
}
pub struct Tweet {
pub username: String,
pub content: String,
pub reply: bool,
pub retweet: bool,
}
impl Summary for Tweet {
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
}
}
fn returns_summarizable(switch: bool) -> impl Summary {
if switch {
NewsArticle {
headline: String::from(
"Penguins win the Stanley Cup Championship!",
),
location: String::from("Pittsburgh, PA, USA"),
author: String::from("Iceburgh"),
content: String::from(
"The Pittsburgh Penguins once again are the best \
hockey team in the NHL.",
),
}
} else {
Tweet {
username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
content: String::from(
"of course, as you probably already know, people",
),
reply: false,
retweet: false,
}
}
}Returning either a NewsArticle or a Tweet isn’t allowed due to restrictions
around how the impl Trait syntax is implemented in the compiler. We’ll cover
how to write a function with this behavior in the “Using Trait Objects That
Allow for Values of Different
Types” section of Chapter 17.
Using Trait Bounds to Conditionally Implement Methods
By using a trait bound with an impl block that uses generic type parameters,
we can implement methods conditionally for types that implement the specified
traits. For example, the type Pair<T> in Listing 10-15 always implements the
new function to return a new instance of Pair<T> (recall from the
“Defining Methods” section of Chapter 5 that Self
is a type alias for the type of the impl block, which in this case is
Pair<T>). But in the next impl block, Pair<T> only implements the
cmp_display method if its inner type T implements the PartialOrd trait
that enables comparison and the Display trait that enables printing.
Filename: src/lib.rs
use std::fmt::Display;
struct Pair<T> {
x: T,
y: T,
}
impl<T> Pair<T> {
fn new(x: T, y: T) -> Self {
Self { x, y }
}
}
impl<T: Display + PartialOrd> Pair<T> {
fn cmp_display(&self) {
if self.x >= self.y {
println!("The largest member is x = {}", self.x);
} else {
println!("The largest member is y = {}", self.y);
}
}
}Listing 10-15: Conditionally implementing methods on a generic type depending on trait bounds
We can also conditionally implement a trait for any type that implements
another trait. Implementations of a trait on any type that satisfies the trait
bounds are called blanket implementations and are used extensively in the
Rust standard library. For example, the standard library implements the
ToString trait on any type that implements the Display trait. The impl
block in the standard library looks similar to this code:
impl<T: Display> ToString for T {
// --snip--
}Because the standard library has this blanket implementation, we can call the
to_string method defined by the ToString trait on any type that implements
the Display trait. For example, we can turn integers into their corresponding
String values like this because integers implement Display:
#![allow(unused)] fn main() { let s = 3.to_string(); }
Blanket implementations appear in the documentation for the trait in the “Implementors” section.
Traits and trait bounds let us write code that uses generic type parameters to reduce duplication but also specify to the compiler that we want the generic type to have particular behavior. The compiler can then use the trait bound information to check that all the concrete types used with our code provide the correct behavior. In dynamically typed languages, we would get an error at runtime if we called a method on a type which didn’t define the method. But Rust moves these errors to compile time so we’re forced to fix the problems before our code is even able to run. Additionally, we don’t have to write code that checks for behavior at runtime because we’ve already checked at compile time. Doing so improves performance without having to give up the flexibility of generics.