Rust 0.6
00dbbd01
Because Rust is a systems programming language, one of its goals is to interoperate well with C code.
We'll start with an example, which is a bit bigger than usual. We'll go over it one piece at a time. This is a program that uses OpenSSL's SHA1 function to compute the hash of its first command-line argument, which it then converts to a hexadecimal string and prints to standard output. If you have the OpenSSL libraries installed, it should compile and run without any extra effort.
extern mod std; use core::libc::c_uint; extern mod crypto { fn SHA1(src: *u8, sz: c_uint, out: *u8) -> *u8; } fn as_hex(data: ~[u8]) -> ~str { let mut acc = ~""; for data.each |&byte| { acc += fmt!("%02x", byte as uint); } return acc; } fn sha1(data: ~str) -> ~str { unsafe { let bytes = str::to_bytes(data); let hash = crypto::SHA1(vec::raw::to_ptr(bytes), vec::len(bytes) as c_uint, ptr::null()); return as_hex(vec::from_buf(hash, 20)); } } fn main() { io::println(sha1(core::os::args()[1])); }
Before we can call the SHA1 function defined in the OpenSSL library, we have to declare it. That is what this part of the program does:
extern mod crypto { fn SHA1(src: *u8, sz: uint, out: *u8) -> *u8; }
An extern module declaration containing function signatures introduces the functions listed as foreign functions. Foreign functions differ from regular Rust functions in that they are implemented in some other language (usually C) and called through Rust's foreign function interface (FFI). An extern module like this is called a foreign module, and implicitly tells the compiler to link with a library that contains the listed foreign functions, and has the same name as the module.
In this case, the Rust compiler changes the name crypto to a shared library name in a platform-specific way (libcrypto.so on Linux, for example), searches for the shared library with that name, and links the library into the program. If you want the module to have a different name from the actual library, you can use the "link_name" attribute, like:
#[link_name = "crypto"] extern mod something { fn SHA1(src: *u8, sz: uint, out: *u8) -> *u8; }
Most foreign code is C code, which usually uses the cdecl calling convention, so that is what Rust uses by default when calling foreign functions. Some foreign functions, most notably the Windows API, use other calling conventions. Rust provides the "abi" attribute as a way to hint to the compiler which calling convention to use:
#[cfg(target_os = "win32")] #[abi = "stdcall"] extern mod kernel32 { fn SetEnvironmentVariableA(n: *u8, v: *u8) -> int; }
The "abi" attribute applies to a foreign module (it cannot be applied to a single function within a module), and must be either "cdecl" or "stdcall". We may extend the compiler in the future to support other calling conventions.
The foreign SHA1 function takes three arguments, and returns a pointer.
fn SHA1(src: *u8, sz: libc::c_uint, out: *u8) -> *u8;
When declaring the argument types to a foreign function, the Rust compiler has no way to check whether your declaration is correct, so you have to be careful. If you get the number or types of the arguments wrong, you're likely to cause a segmentation fault. Or, probably even worse, your code will work on one platform, but break on another.
In this case, we declare that SHA1 takes two unsigned char* arguments and one unsigned long. The Rust equivalents are *u8 unsafe pointers and an uint (which, like unsigned long, is a machine-word-sized type).
The standard library provides various functions to create unsafe pointers, such as those in core::cast. Most of these functions have unsafe in their name. You can dereference an unsafe pointer with the * operator, but use caution: unlike Rust's other pointer types, unsafe pointers are completely unmanaged, so they might point at invalid memory, or be null pointers.
The sha1 function is the most obscure part of the program.
fn sha1(data: ~str) -> ~str { unsafe { let bytes = str::to_bytes(data); let hash = crypto::SHA1(vec::raw::to_ptr(bytes), vec::len(bytes), ptr::null()); return as_hex(vec::from_buf(hash, 20)); } }
First, what does the unsafe keyword at the top of the function mean? unsafe is a block modifier—it declares the block following it to be known to be unsafe.
Some operations, like dereferencing unsafe pointers or calling functions that have been marked unsafe, are only allowed inside unsafe blocks. With the unsafe keyword, you're telling the compiler 'I know what I'm doing'. The main motivation for such an annotation is that when you have a memory error (and you will, if you're using unsafe constructs), you have some idea where to look—it will most likely be caused by some unsafe code.
Unsafe blocks isolate unsafety. Unsafe functions, on the other hand, advertise it to the world. An unsafe function is written like this:
unsafe fn kaboom() { ~"I'm harmless!"; }
This function can only be called from an unsafe block or another unsafe function.
The standard library defines a number of helper functions for dealing with unsafe data, casting between types, and generally subverting Rust's safety mechanisms.
Let's look at our sha1 function again.
let bytes = str::to_bytes(data); let hash = crypto::SHA1(vec::raw::to_ptr(bytes), vec::len(bytes), ptr::null()); return as_hex(vec::from_buf(hash, 20));
The str::to_bytes function is perfectly safe: it converts a string to a ~[u8]. The program then feeds this byte array to vec::raw::to_ptr, which returns an unsafe pointer to its contents.
This pointer will become invalid at the end of the scope in which the vector it points to (bytes) is valid, so you should be very careful how you use it. In this case, the local variable bytes outlives the pointer, so we're good.
Passing a null pointer as the third argument to SHA1 makes it use a static buffer, and thus save us the effort of allocating memory ourselves. ptr::null is a generic function that, in this case, returns an unsafe null pointer of type *u8. (Rust generics are awesome like that: they can take the right form depending on the type that they are expected to return.)
Finally, vec::from_buf builds up a new ~[u8] from the unsafe pointer that SHA1 returned. SHA1 digests are always twenty bytes long, so we can pass 20 for the length of the new vector.
C functions often take pointers to structs as arguments. Since Rust structs are binary-compatible with C structs, Rust programs can call such functions directly.
This program uses the POSIX function gettimeofday to get a microsecond-resolution timer.
extern mod std; use core::libc::c_ulonglong; struct timeval { tv_sec: c_ulonglong, tv_usec: c_ulonglong } #[nolink] extern mod lib_c { fn gettimeofday(tv: *mut timeval, tz: *()) -> i32; } fn unix_time_in_microseconds() -> u64 { unsafe { let mut x = timeval { tv_sec: 0 as c_ulonglong, tv_usec: 0 as c_ulonglong }; lib_c::gettimeofday(&mut x, ptr::null()); return (x.tv_sec as u64) * 1000_000_u64 + (x.tv_usec as u64); } }
The #[nolink] attribute indicates that there's no foreign library to link in. The standard C library is already linked with Rust programs.
In C, a timeval is a struct with two 32-bit integer fields. Thus, we define a struct type with the same contents, and declare gettimeofday to take a pointer to such a struct.
This program does not use the second argument to gettimeofday (the time zone), so the extern mod declaration for it simply declares this argument to be a pointer to the unit type (written ()). Since all null pointers have the same representation regardless of their referent type, this is safe.